Mandy's History Paper

Adult Education in the 1960s

Mandy Lowe

Ball State University

EDAC 631

Mandy Lowe

Commented On:    Linda Simmons, Group 4

                Adult education has been shaped by events and trends over the course of many years. By studying this history and evolution, educators can piece together important and applicable knowledge gained from the past and put this theory into practice. The 1960s is one such period, from which much can be learned regarding the importance of adult education and its connection to job and career training.

Introduction

The 1960’s can be described as a decade of great social change. The Vietnam War, the civil rights movement, the race to put a man in space, and student protests laid the framework for the shaping of United States society for years to come. (What Happened, 2017) The 60s saw the beginning of significant programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, Head Start, and Job Corps, which sought to train workers with needed skills. President Lyndon B. Johnson shared a goal of bringing about a “Great Society”, which would help to eliminate poverty and allow for equality among all. (The 1960s, 2017) The nation began the 1960s with a general optimism, however that optimism dissipated throughout the decade as a general unrest took hold.

                The Vietnam War was an especially polarizing event. The conflict had grown to a full-scale war, and in 1964, Congress authorized President Johnson to take “all necessary measures” in South Vietnam. (The 1960s, 2017) The draft was reinstated. Many were in support of the war, however there were a great many in the United States who did not support the draft or the war effort. There was a new rallying cry for peace and pacifism by opponents of the war. (Forland, 2015)

                The civil rights movement also gained important momentum in the 1960s. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited “discrimination based on account of race, sex, color, religion, and national origin.” (Jones, 2013, p. 404) Education was becoming more accessible, however there were still many states and areas where prejudice and discrimination were commonplace.  John F. Kennedy, Bobby Kennedy, and Martin Luther King Jr. were important voices during this time period who sought to bring about equality and end segregation. Sadly, their voices were silenced, but the movement continued throughout this decade.

                Another important component of the 1960s was an increase in student protest and activism. According to Rochester (2016), this decade saw the “first big wave of student activism after World War II.” (p. 422) Anti-war protests and demonstrations for equal rights for people of color and women permeated college campuses. A counterculture developed among young adults, who believed in freedom and communal living, apart from politics and the influence of capitalism. There were also increased instances of young people leaving the United States for Canada to avoid the draft. (The 1960s, 2017)

                Overall, the 1960s was a tumultuous period with abundant political dissidence.  Certain groups and individuals were working to bring the country together and to promote tolerance and unity. However, there was also a great deal of unrest, violence, and polarization among communities and cultures. This anxiety in the country undoubtedly played a part in the progression of adult education and changed how the field continued to evolve.

Highlights

                In this decade of uncertainty, society and adult education began to focus increasingly on adult literacy and the negative effect that illiteracy had on individuals and communities. The civil rights movement and an increased legislative attention on poverty brought about the Adult Education Act of 1966. This Act was an important commitment to providing federal funding for states to develop literacy programs. As technology became more prominent in the workplace, the need for literacy education became even more prevalent. (Hacker & Yankwitt, 1997) During this period, literacy was best defined through policy as “a tangible set of skills – an individual’s ability to read and write.” (Bannon, 2016, p. 318) The goal of such literacy programs was to assist all individuals in becoming more self-sufficient and less reliant on community assistance. This goal was also integral in the Great Society envisioned by President Johnson. During this time period, adult education also began to focus more on preparing adults for the workforce and ensuring that they possessed the basic skills to be able to further their workplace training. It was believed that the productivity of the nation as a whole was dependent on a literate workforce. (Bannon, 2016)

                Another significant event of the 1960s was the Vocational Education Act of 1963. This Act provided permanent federal funding for vocational training. Vocational training was important because it prepared adult learners for “employment in any occupational field not requiring a baccalaureate degree” (Mobley, 1964, p. 169) and allowed for faster gathering of needed skills. This legislation was also useful during the decade because individuals of all abilities and backgrounds could receive job training. Also important was the increased development of vocational training in various types of institutions, from community colleges to universities. (Mobley, 1964) Again, the focus of this legislation was to develop a more knowledgeable and skilled workforce to prevent poverty and dependence.

                The increased focus on these programs involving literacy and vocational training involves the controversial view of human capital. This human capital perspective become connected to the field of adult education significantly in this decade. Economists linked lesser earnings to lesser education. This was an important trend because a societal shift had occurred in the country which lead to legislation which attempted to actively combat poverty and reduce dependence on welfare programs. The individual benefitted but also, and arguably more importantly, did the nation as a whole. (Bannon, 2016) Critics of this perspective argue that the adult education field is therefore minimized because the focus is on the capitalist view of increasing profits, rather than by “empowering” workers. (Merriam & Brockett, 2007)

                Often in the 1960s, the view of adult education was tied to the importance of a skilled and trainable workforce. Legislation was geared toward funding programs at the state level that focused on literacy and vocational training. If the United States was to combat poverty and provide a competitive workforce, these programs were of key importance.

Influential Factors

                The field of adult education in the 1960s was still in the formative stages. There was not one agreed upon strategy that could be pointed at to define adult education. There were however influential factors that were contributing to adult education in an effort to better define and develop adult education as a whole.

                The 1960 Handbook of Adult Education emphasized “identifying, organizing, and prescribing the organization of the knowledge and practice of adult education as a professional and scientific endeavor.” (Merriam & Brockett, 2007, p. 307) A collective of educators contributed to the handbook, and described their focus and ideas for the furthering of the field. Robert J. Blakely wrote that “continuing education was to advance democracy” and create “responsible citizens through lifelong learning.” (Grace, 2012, p. 9) W. Hallenbeck believed that adult education should fulfill a variety of functions, from vocational learning, to community growth and learning, to individual growth. In the handbook, Cyril O. Houle noted that many adults often leaned toward vocational training as it was necessary for improving their career and that it was more readily accepted in the community. (Grace, 2012)

                Another important influence in adult education were such groups as the Adult Education Association of the United States (AEA-USA) and the National Association of Public School Adult Educators (NAPSAE). (Rose, 1991) In this decade the AEA-USA began to focus on effective lobbying for more financial support of adult education, and thus moved their offices to Washington DC. (Adult Education Association, 2007) NAPSAE also increased their lobbying efforts to urge the passing of the Adult Education Act in 1966. Both groups envisioned increased funding of adult education as crucial to the field, and sought to make adult education “equal of the other branches of education, with adequate state and local funding.” (Rose, 1991, p. 9)

                Finally, the programs and legislation initiated in the 1960s by President Lyndon B. Johnson were immensely influential to the field of adult education. President Johnson’s programs as part of his Great Society vision brought adult education into the spotlight. The nation as a whole began to see the benefit of a knowledgeable and trainable workforce. This idea was novel in that many marginalized groups had traditionally been hindered from receiving basic adult education, and would now be included in job training and literacy programs. The Economic Opportunity Act, proposed in 1964 by President Johnson, directed the creation of Job Corps and work-study programs. President Johnson’s ideas began to connect adult education to the decline of poverty as well as to increased equality and economic opportunities for all citizens. (Bannon, 2016)

Implications

                The perspective and trends from the field of adult education in the 1960s can continue to be applied in today’s practice. The civil rights movement shed light on the importance of equality in access to education. Protections are needed to ensure that all individuals are afforded basic rights and are not discriminated against based on their skin color, gender, or religion. If discrimination is allowed in any form, including in access to education, that is a moral failing of our nation. While huge progress has been made since the 1960s, there is a still a need for equality and continuing toward a less discriminatory society.

                The 1960s began to bring about a focus on the idea that education and the economy are linked. This is an important link when we consider how to improve the lives of individuals, communities, and society as a whole. A more educated individual generally is more self-sufficient and better able to contribute to the community in which he lives. “Escape from poverty today means following the road of education and training and jobs”. This statement is attributed to Senator Yarborough in his statement to Congress in 1964, and it still rings true. (Bannon, 2016, p. 324)

                Additionally, vocational training continues to be of importance today as it was in the 1960s. Technology is continuing to advance at a rapid pace. Quite simply, the workforce needs workers who are trained and able to fulfill needed skilled positions. There will always be a need for this type of training, as advances continue to occur. Adult education can play an important role in the workplace by ensuring that workers can be trained to adapt to evolving industries. While this can be controversial, in that some educators feel that “learning for earning” (Maher & Passmore, 2002, p. 9) reduces the impact and development of adult education, this type of training does have a place in the field of adult education.

Table 1. Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education

Areas	Summary
Social Background	·         Great Society, proposed by President Lyndon B. Johnson ·         The Vietnam War ·         Civil Rights Movement ·         Student Protests and Activism
Highlights	·         Increased Legislation ·         Adult Education Act of 1966 ·         Vocational Education Act of 1963 ·         Human Capital Perspective
Influential Factors	·         1960 Handbook of Adult Education in the United States ·         Adult Education Association of the United States ·         National Association of Public School Adult Educators ·         President Johnson - Great Society and Economic Opportunity Act
Implications	·         Equal Access to Education ·         Education and Link to Economy ·         Vocational Training

References

The 1960s. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/1960s

Adult education association (AEA-USA)/American association for adult and continuing education (AAACE) records, special collections research center, Syracuse university libraries. (2007). Retrieved from http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/a/aaace.htm

Bannon, J. L. (2016). EMERGING VOICES: Capitalizing on adult education: The economic imperative for literacy in 1960s federal policy discourse. College English, 78(4), 314.

Førland, T. E. (2015). Cutting the sixties down to size: Conceptualizing, historicizing, explaining. Journal for the Study of Radicalism, 9(2), 125-148. doi:10.14321/jstudradi.9.2.0125

GRACE, A. P. (2012). The decline of social education and the rise of instrumentalism in North American adult education (1947-1970). Studies in the Education of Adults, 44(2), 225-244.

Hacker, E., & Yankwitt, I. (1997). Education, job skills, or workfare: The crisis facing adult literacy education today. Social Text, 51(51), 109-117. doi:10.2307/466650

Jones, D. M. (2013). Civil rights acts. In P. L. Mason (Ed.), Encyclopedia of race and racism (2nd ed. ed., pp. 401-406). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA.

Maher, P. A., & Passmore, D. (2000). Conversations with long-time adult educators.

Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction (Updated.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Mobley, M. D. (1964). A review of federal vocational-education legislation 1862-1963. Theory into Practice, 3(5), 167-170. doi:10.1080/00405846409541920

Rochester, J. M. (2016). Too much and too little: Campus demonstrations in the 1960s and today. Academic Questions, 29(4), 422-427. doi:10.1007/s12129-016-9596-2

Rose, A. D., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Columbus, OH. (1991). Ends or means: An overview of the history of the adult education act. information series no. 346. Center on Education and Training for Employment.

What happened in the 1960s. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/1960s.html